Chapter four

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Chapter four

Program of study specification

Increasingly learning objectives are seen as central to curriculum design. They are often seen as a starting point for deliberations on particular courses, but their influence typically runs through an entire program of study.

The original CS2001 document used learning outcomes, but its treatment of them could have been more uniform. The purpose of this chapter is to address related issues including some key matters that have an influence throughout an entire curriculum.


Contents

4.1 On Learning Objectives

Learning objectives are central components of any body of knowledge; basically they capture important elements that are typically absent from a mere list of knowledge topics. They are intended to capture what students are able to do with knowledge. This typically varies from simple recall to include, for instance, more sophisticated process-oriented skills. Given the rate of change of knowledge, it is often argued with considerable justification that these skills ought to form the basis of curriculum development as they are fundamental to life-long learning. If properly selected, they encourage the student to make effective use of new knowledge as it becomes available.

There are subtle arguments about whether the term ‘learning objectives’ or ‘learning outcomes’ should be used. The underlying difference is normally explained in the following way: objectives are aspirational, whereas outcomes are mandatory in some sense. Since they are softer as a target, here the focus will be on objectives.

Learning objectives are relevant at various stages. For the purposes of this interim review, it is convenient to classify them as

  • benchmark learning objectives are intended to capture the characteristics that describe what is expected from a student on any (for instance) computer science program of study
  • program learning objectives are associated with programs of study and so capture at a high level the anticipated behavioural characteristics of graduates
  • class learning objectives are associated with individual classes and so indicate the contribution that each class makes to the program learning objectives though usually in sufficient detail to guide intended participants (lecturer, students, etc.)
  • instructional learning objectives are associated with knowledge units or topics and so include in great detail the expectations relating to individual parts of the class

In a properly designed program of study there will be important relationships between the various levels of objectives. In brief, the lower level objectives ought to imply the higher level objectives.

4.1.1 On the Nature of Learning Objectives

A set of educational objectives was first captured in Bloom’s taxonomy back in 1956. This has undergone a number of revisions though the elements of the original insights are still dominant. A slight variation on Bloom’s taxonomy is summarised below to take into account the meaning of specific terms (such as execute or implement) in a computing context. In this discussion we follow the views outlined in [Anderson et al, 2001].

Formally, typically a learning objective contains a verb and a noun:

the verb describes the intended cognitive process; the latter includes the elements of Bloom’s taxonomy and so words like remember, understand, analyse, design are all highly relevant.

the noun describes the knowledge that the student is intended to acquire; now knowledge itself can be categorised in various ways, with a spectrum running from the concrete to the abstract.

Level Category Cognitive Processes
1. Remember recognising, recalling, describing, stating
2. Understand interpret, exemplify, classify, infer, compare, explain, paraphrasing, summarising
3. Apply execute (i.e. carry out), implement (i.e. use), compute, manipulate, solve
4. Analyse differentiate, organise, attribute, discriminate, distinguish, sub-divide
5. Evaluate check, critique, assess, compare, contrast
6. Create generate, plan, produce, innovate, devise, design, organize


Benchmark and program objectives tend to be associated with the higher levels of this taxonomy, whereas instructional objectives tend to be associated with the lower levels.

4.2 Characteristics of graduates

As previously described, learning objectives can occur at program of study level, class or module level and knowledge unit or topic level; other possibilities also exist but these would seem to be the most commonly used in the CC2001 context. In any particular case, a certain consistency between these has to be established; thus the learning outcomes for the various classes should typically imply the learning outcomes for the program of study itself, and that will reflect the expected characteristics of graduates.

At a broad level, these expected characteristics of computer science graduates can be expressed as follows (and this constitutes an updating of a similar list in CS2001):

  • System-level perspectiveThe objectives associated with individual units in the body of knowledge tend to emphasize isolated concepts and skills that can lead to a fragmented view of the discipline. Graduates of a computer science program must develop a high-level understanding of systems as a whole. This understanding must transcend the implementation details of the various components to encompass an appreciation for the structure of computer systems and the processes involved in their construction and analysis.
  • Appreciation of the interplay between theory and practice. A fundamental aspect of computer science is the balance between theory and practice and the essential link between them. Graduates of a computer science program must understand not only the theoretical underpinnings of the discipline but also how that theory influences practice.
  • Familiarity with common themes and principles. In the course of an undergraduate program in computer science, students will encounter many recurring themes such as abstraction, complexity, and evolutionary change. They will also encounter principles, e.g. those associated with caching, (e.g. the principle of locality), with sharing a common resource, with security, with concurrency, and so on. Graduates should recognize that these themes and principles have broad application to the field of computer science and must not compartmentalize them as relevant only to the domains in which they were introduced.
  • Significant project experience. To ensure that graduates can successfully apply the knowledge they have gained, all students in computer science programs must be involved in at least one substantial software project. Such a project (usually positioned late in a program of study) demonstrates the practical application of principles learned in different courses and forces students to integrate material learned at different stages of the curriculum. Student need to appreciate the need for domain knowledge for certain applications, and that this may necessitate study within that domain.
  • Attention to rigorous thinking. This may be formal but need not be but should include discipline epitomised by the use of sound practices which include planning, tracking progress, measuring and generally managing quality; this needs to be seen to complement sound design and sound choice of techniques.
  • Adaptability. One of the essential characteristics of computer science over its relatively brief history has been an enormous pace of change. Graduates of a computer science program must possess a solid foundation that allows and encourages them to maintain their skills as the field evolves.

The expected capabilities and skills for computer science graduates can be captured under three headings:

Cognitive capabilities and skills relating to computer science

  • Knowledge and understanding. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of essential facts, concepts, principles, and theories relating to computer science and software applications.
  • Modeling. Use such knowledge and understanding in the modeling and design of computer-based systems in a way that demonstrates comprehension of the tradeoff involved in design choices.
  • Requirements. Identify and analyze criteria and specifications appropriate to specific problems, and plan strategies for their solution.
  • Understanding the elements of computational thinking. This includes recognising its broad relevance in everyday life as well as its applicability within other domains, and being able to apply it in appropriate circumstances.
  • Critical evaluation and testing. Analyze the extent to which a computer-based system meets the criteria defined for its current use and future development.
  • Methods and tools. Deploy appropriate theory, practices, and tools for the specification, design, implementation, and maintenance as well as the evaluation of computer-based systems.
  • Professional responsibility. Recognize and be guided by the social, professional, legal and ethical as well as cultural issues involved in the use of computer technology. Increasingly cultural issues are also relevant.

Practical capabilities and skills relating to computer science

  • Design and implementation. Specify, design, and implement computer-based systems.
  • Evaluation. Evaluate systems in terms of general quality attributes and possible tradeoffs presented within the given problem.
  • Information management. Apply the principles of effective information management, information organization, and information-retrieval skills to information of various kinds, including text, images, sound, and video. This must include managing any security issues.
  • Human-computer interaction. Apply the principles of human-computer interaction to the evaluation and construction of a wide range of materials including user interfaces, web pages, multimedia systems and mobile systems.
  • Risk assessment. Identify any risks (and this includes any safety or security aspects) that may be involved in the operation of computing equipment within a given context.
  • Tools. Deploy effectively the tools used for the construction and documentation of software, with particular emphasis on understanding the whole process involved in using computers to solve practical problems. This should include tools for software control including version control and configuration management.
  • Software reuse. Be aware of the existence of publicly available software (such as APIs or open source materials) and engage effectively in open-source projects.
  • Operation. Operate computing equipment and software systems effectively.

Additional transferable skills

  • Communication. Make succinct presentations to a range of audiences about technical problems and their solutions. This may involve face-to-face, written communication or electronic communication.
  • Teamwork. Be able to work effectively as a member of a development team.
  • Numeracy. Understand and explain the quantitative dimensions of a problem.
  • Self management. Manage one’s own learning and development, including time management and organizational skills
  • Professional development. Keep abreast of current developments in the discipline to continue one’s own professional development.
  • Software reuse, open source issues. Separate compilation.

4.3 International considerations

With the increased globilization of computing and the international nature of the workforce it is increasingly important to pay attention in the curriculum to certain related matters. There are a number of very basic issues and concerns that ought to be reflected in the design and development of the curriculum.

4.3.1 Some basic issues

International competitiveness

It must be the responsibility of all countries to ensure that their students are internationally competitiveness in terms of the abilities and skills they acquire during their education. This has implications for the whole range of technical skills as well as non-technical skills (so covering personal, professional, etc) and ensuring that the standards of the education provided are excellent. To do otherwise is to disadvantage the young and to open up the possibility of others coming in to fill local jobs.

Additionally some would place a degree of emphasis on attention to innovation in the curriculum; this tends to equip students with an attitude of mind that ultimately stimulates new developments and provides a set of incentives and a flair likely to lead to job creation.

In this context, competitions such as the The ACM Programming Contest provide important indications of health although the messages they send out must not be over-emphasized.

Legal, social, etc issues

There is reasonably wide agreement that this topic of legal, social, professional and ethical should feature in all computing degrees. Comments relating to it exist in all the curriculum guidelines and is seen as important. It needs to be observed that many aspects of this (e.g. the legal dimension) will vary from one country to another. So one view that emerges naturally is that some attention needs to be given to the separation between the national issues and international issues. Such a separation would serve to facilitate student mobility.

Separations of this kind have not normally been prescribed. Indeed taking a truly global perspective here may involve expert guidance from an international lawyer, and that is beyond the individual skills of most computing faculty. So some reasonable compromise seems inevitable and justified. One approach might be to focus on national perspectives for depth, but then to take a broad view of the truly significant matters in the international scene.

It seems important to recognise that such issues do impinge on technical areas such as human computer interaction, the design of interactive systems, as well as in information gathering activities of various sorts (e.g. of personal data).

Cultural Issues

Issues of a cultural nature are often ignored in computing degrees but increasingly they are important. These concerns straddle topics such as:

  • Significance of certain colours, symbols, etc.; since there is often considerable sensitivity associated with these, it is important to be aware of them.
  • Likewise dates, times of the year, etc. have special significance and often these can impact on working relations. It is beneficial to show sensitivity in such matters.
  • Attitude to authority – this varies from one culture to another. It can imply an unwillingness to question authority, for instance. So what does this mean in the context of effective team building. Are alternative models then appropriate and if so what are these?


4.3.2 Additional concerns

A number of additional matters can be considered beyond the more basic elements.

Articulation Considerations

Articulation of courses and programs between academic institutions is a process that facilitates transfer by students from one institution to another. The goal is to enable students to transfer in as seamless a manner as possible. Efficient and effective articulation requires accurate assessment of courses and programs as well as meaningful communication and cooperation. Both students and faculty have responsibilities and obligations for successful articulation. Ultimately, students are best served when educational institutions establish well defined articulation agreements that actively promote transfer.

Articulation agreements often guide curriculum content as well, and are important considerations in the formulation of transfer-oriented programs of study. Institutions are encouraged to work collaboratively to design compatible and consistent programs of study that enable students to transfer, in the United States from associate-degree programs into baccalaureate-degree programs, and in other countries from post-secondary colleges into universities. A two-year college must develop transition and articulation strategies for the colleges and universities to which its students most often transfer, recognizing that it may be necessary to modify course content to facilitate transfer credit and articulation agreements.

A student’s program of study must also take into consideration the general education requirements at both the initial college and the anticipated transfer institution. Faculty must ensure that they clearly define program goals, address program learning objectives, and evaluate students effectively against defined course objectives. Articulation agreements should specify one or more well-defined exit points for students to matriculate from the post-secondary college to the transfer institution. In turn, faculty at the receiving institution must provide any transitional preparation necessary to enable transfer students to continue their academic work on par with students at their institution. Hence, students must expect to complete programs in their entirety up to well-defined exit points (e.g., completion of a defined course sequence or program) at one institution before transferring to another institution; one cannot expect articulation to accommodate potential transfers in the middle of a carefully designed curriculum. Acting on these considerations, all post-secondary institutions of higher education will foster student success and best serve their students’ academic and career aspirations.

Student mobility and related matters

In some parts of the world (notably Europe at the present time with its Bologna process) there are positive incentives to encourage student mobility. There are two principal aspects to this

  • equipping students so that they can readily move and take up study in other countries
  • having a policy of welcoming suitable students from outside to come and study locally

There are implications from both of these aspects for education, not just on the computing front but also in terms of language skills, acquiring an understanding of other practices, and so on. But in both cases there is a need for educationalists to keep abreast of what is happening elsewhere and to respond accordingly.

Economic concerns

In any computing degree students ought to have some feeling for the financial and economic imperatives. Thus which approaches are expensive and is this expense justified? Which approaches are less expensive and is this sensible?

With the advent of outsourcing and offshoring these matters become more complex and take on new dimensions. Then economic issues of an international dimension come to the fore but associated with these there are often related ethical issues concerning exploitation but also ownership; these are often difficult fine lines of demarcation in this area. Such matters ought to feature in courses on legal, ethical and professional practice.

For anyone producing software there is a requirement that they can guarantee to some level the functionality and related reliability of what the software will do. But thinking of errors, and other malicious or dangerous possibilities, there are also requirements in terms of what it should not do (e.g. it should not spread viruses). The practice of offshoring raised complications in such situations. In particular (sensitive) application areas this was particularly significant.

Global Company Considerations

Some organizations take the view that they will tailor or customize their products for use in other countries. This can involve them in merely translating an interface by expressing text in the language of that country. But, for instance, if the software provides information this may entail considerable work in gathering local information and in making that available. It may even involve legal concerns about what can be made available. In such situations considerable local knowledge and expertise may be required. Then other issues to do with best practice in teamwork activity come into play.

When local information is stored within a particular country, the best way of accessing that is often through the mother tongue. The availability of automatic translation mechanisms can facilitate access by someone from another country. Increasingly there are huge possibilities in this regard. So natural language processing becomes highly relevant.

4.3.3 Concluding remarks

The comments made above must be seen as just a start. They are provided to raise awareness of the extent to which international considerations can potentially feature in the curriculum.

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